What is plasticity in development

The predictability of environmental changes is also an important determinant of the degree of adaptive flexibility of a species Hochberg et al. In some instances, the environmental change is highly predictable, and an adapted species exists as a limited range of subtle, but distinct and definable, phenotypes. Adaptive plasticity of an organism is associated with immediate adaptive responses forecasting or predicting , which are concerned with its immediate survival with no consideration for the long-term consequences Gluckman and Hanson, a.

These adaptive responses adjust the developmental phenotype, and comprise a set of processes that can be triggered by a wide range of environmental cues in order to promote lifetime fitness. Recognition of an environmental cue also enables the organism to adapt or acclimatize to an environment change, and creates future trajectories in its development. The resultant adaptive advantage depends upon the fidelity of the cue about the future state of the environment.

High fidelity cues enable the organism to optimize its adaptation or fit to the anticipated environment. Low fidelity cues carry a fitness disadvantage, although the impact will depend upon the extent of mismatch between the predicted and actual future environment. Two types of adaptive responses or plasticity exist Gluckman and Hanson, a.

The first types are the anticipatory or predictive adaptive responses where the developing organism forecasts the future environment, and then adjusts its phenotypic trajectory accordingly. The second types are the immediate adaptive responses which promote short-term maternal or fetal survival with some advantages in later life developmental plasticity. Since these two adaptive responses come with a significant cost, individual members of a species make a cost—benefit analysis in order to determine the true value of an adaptive response.

Within the adaptive responses, the organism may engage in a trade-off between phenotypic changes in order to ensure its short-term survival at the expense of a long-term advantage. Hence, trade-offs occur because energy needs to be allocated in order to meet the different metabolic and physiological demands of a developing organism.

Therefore, trade-offs can often manifest themselves as longevity as an alternative to reduced survival of the juveniles.

Such is the consequence of embryonic fetal development when it occurs in a deprived intrauterine environment as a result of a limited transplacental nutrient supply. In response, the fetus protects the development of its heart and brain at the expense of other organs, and somatic growth is retarded.

Intrauterine growth restriction IUGR is an example of an immediate cryptically maladaptive response to the environment Gluckman and Hanson, The secular trends in child growth and puberty are dazzling examples of such adaptation Arcaleni, This range of plasticity in growth over approximately six generations is not long enough to result from changes in the DNA sequence. This reduction has a theoretical fitness advantage on the fecundity span in an environment that is rich in energy resources, and demonstrates plasticity in the maturation of the hypothalamic—pituitary—gonadal HPG axis.

The signals of energy balance that modulate this plasticity are both intrinsic internal and extrinsic environmental; Hochberg et al. The transition periods between these phases are sensitive windows of developmental plasticity, and there is now some evidence that the features of transition from one phase to the next are transmitted transgenerationally Stein et al.

With decreasing sensitivity, the transitions between phases are periods of adaptive plasticity, and the multifactorial regulation of growth during each phase mirrors the interplay between genetic, hormonal, environmental, and psychosocial factors.

Growth during pre-adult life history stages. The 50th percentile of first derivatives for both boys solid line and girls dashed line were calculated from the US CDC data. The upper part indicates the four pre-adult life history stages: infancy I , childhood C , juvenility J , and adolescence A. The three transition points are marked by a circle, and designated as ICT, infancy—childhood transition; CJT, childhood—juvenility transition; JAT, juvenility—adolescence transition. In response to environmental cues, especially those that relate to energy resources, a life history phase can be added or deleted such as the added childhood phase in hominids , and can have its duration, intensity, and onset time altered Hochberg and Albertsson-Wikland, ; Hochberg, ; Hochberg et al.

We have previously reported that the ICT is a major determinant of final adult height, and a delayed ICT is the most common cause of idiopathic short stature Hochberg and Albertsson-Wikland, The transition from childhood to juvenility is entrusted with the programming of body composition Hochberg, , The transition from juvenility to adolescent-related puberty and the growth spurt is a function of maturation of the HPG axis. Poor quality of life during this transition delays fecundity and increases longevity Pembrey et al.

Hence, a series of control mechanisms must exist in order to enable a the GH—IGF1 axis to dominate as the child transits into childhood, b adrenarche at the onset of juvenility, and c an abrupt increase in sex hormones at initiation of puberty. As already noted, an organism distributes its energy resources during its life by timed allocations toward growth, maintenance, avoiding death, reproduction, and raising offspring to independence in order to enhance its reproductive fitness Bogin et al.

Whereas the environment at any one geographical location may vary slowly, nutritional conditions may change rapidly. Evolution has provided organisms with the mechanisms to adapt to such extremes. Humans can also use socio-cultural adjustments to fill the gaps when the changes occur faster than the evolutionary time scale. This can be seen when one examines the evolution of hominid life history from Australopithecus afarensis to Homo sapiens.

In humans, the duration of infancy has become shortened, and that of childhood has been prolonged, and these two phases are followed by a relative short juvenility and late adolescence in order to increase fitness Pratt et al. The overall result of this strategy is increased body size and longevity, and reproduction at a later age, as compared to other primates.

This strategy has been very successful for humans, who can thrive and propagate in extremely diverse environments that encompass the entire range of geographic latitudes and altitudes. An important environmental cue for infants and young children is the care giving behaviors of their parents, which can be used as a predictive indicator of the security of their environment.

The resultant attachment patterns are transmitted transgenerationally Belsky and Fearon, ; Del Giudice, A secure attachment will result in a reproductive strategy that is based on late maturation, a commitment to a long-term relationship, and a large investment in parenting. In terms of evolutionary developmental biology evo-devo , which studies the developmental mechanisms that control body shape and form and the alterations in gene expression and function that lead to changes in body shape and pattern Goodman and Coughlin, , the expected response to a secure environment will include investment in large body size Liu et al.

This example of transgenerational phenotypic plasticity contrasts that of an insecure attachment and a small parental investment that involves a large number of children: the response is a compromise in body size, early reproduction, and short-term mating. Child growth and body composition display a vast range of adaptive plasticity. Short-term plasticity in the various child growth phases and transitions suggests that epigenetic mechanisms determine the extent of adaptive plasticity during growth in response to environmental cues.

In the light of these new findings, this issue considers the utility of life history theory, and the links between epigenetics, developmental programming, and plasticity in early growth and nutrition.

Modern research has demonstrated that the brain continues to create new neural pathways and alter existing ones in order to adapt to new experiences, learn new information, and create new memories.

Thanks to modern advances in technology, researchers are able to get a never-before-possible look at the brain's inner workings. As the study of modern neuroscience flourished, a body of research has demonstrated that people are not limited to the mental abilities they are born with and that damaged brains are often quite capable of remarkable change.

Brain changes are often seen as improvements, but this is not always the case. In some instances, the brain might be influenced by psychoactive substances or pathological conditions that can lead to detrimental effects on the brain and behavior.

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Volume Article Contents Abstract. Editor's Choice. Developmental plasticity: Bridging research in evolution and human health. Oxford Academic. Jenny Tung. Elizabeth A Archie. Susan C Alberts. Corresponding author. Tel: ; Fax: ; E-mail: alberts duke. Select Format Select format. Permissions Icon Permissions. Abstract Early life experiences can have profound and persistent effects on traits expressed throughout the life course, with consequences for later life behavior, disease risk, and mortality rates.

Range of definitions. Proposed usage. Avoid the abbreviation; specify whether the topic is natural selection, social selection, health selection, selection bias, and so on. Heritable Used to describe a trait for which a measurable proportion of total phenotypic variance is explained by genetic differences among individuals.

Adaptation Used to describe a trait that increases the average fitness of individuals that express it, relative to individuals that do not express the trait. When using these terms, clarify whether evolutionary adaptation or short-term physiological adaptation is meant. If referring to evolutionary adaptation, the term should be reserved for traits with demonstrated rather than assumed fitness advantages in carriers, relative to other individuals in a population or species.

Maladaptation Used to describe a trait that decreases the net average fitness of individuals that express it, relative to individuals that do not express the trait.

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